·         The “single-payer” system of health care can best be described as a system wherein the government provides access to health care by paying for it.

·         Approximately 40 million Americans do not have access to health insurance.

·         Bureaucratic drift occurs when a bureaucratic agency implements policy more consistent with what Congress, not the president, wants.

·         Health care reform’s high level of salience means that anyone who might be affected by it is involved in health care reform.

·         A senator was concerned about the health care bill mandating particular types of medical procedures because it would give the government too much influence over medical decisions.

·         The intent of comparative effective research in health care is to look for the best solutions to common health care problems

·         Policy typologies are useful for classifying a large amount of information about public policy into a smaller set of manageable categories.

·         Distributive policies are also called pork barrel policies.

·         Environmental policy would be considered a regulatory policy.

·         A salient policy is one that is important to the American people.

·         A policymaker might be more likely to respond to citizens on salient issues because responding to citizens on issues important to them can help policymakers satisfy constituents and win reelection.

·         Policymakers are less likely to publicize their stances on complex issues because complex issues are difficult to explain to average citizens.

·         The U.S. tax code is considered to be a redistributive policy because it is progressive, meaning that lower-income earners pay a lower tax rate than higher-income earners.

·         By the “adoption” of public policy, the author of this essay is referring to the process by which a policy is approved by policymakers.

·         When expenditures exceed revenue in a given fiscal year, we say that we have a budget deficit.

·         In early American history, foreign-policy makers were afraid of the dangers of having a large army and navy.

·         Promoting U.S. economic prosperity has been an enduring U.S. foreign policy goal throughout American history.

·         Hegemon is the term that describes a dominant power in the world.

·         When President John Quincy Adams warned the nation against “going abroad in search of monsters to destroy,” he was counseling against trying to impose our values on other countries.

·         The Cold War was a struggle between communism and democracy.

·         The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait precipitated the first Gulf War against Iraq.

·         The United States continued to stay heavily involved in Iraq after the first Gulf War because it was seeking to make sure Iraq did not possess any weapons of mass destruction.

·         The foreign policy goal of combating terrorism became much more visible after the second U.S. invasion of Iraq.

·         The apparent need to destroy weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, later proven to be false, was the rationale used to justify the second Iraqi war.

·         The United States maintains diplomatic relations with other nations through the exchange of ambassadors.

·         The U.S. government devotes 1.5 percent of its budget to foreign aid.

·         The political use of military force involves using the U.S. military to influence other states without actually going to war.

Definitions:

·   Political Participation: involvement in activities intended to influence public policy and leadership.

·   Voter Turnout: the proportion of adult citizens who turn up to vote.

·   Capital-gains tax: gains earned through investments

·   Tax base: the income, property, wealth, or economic activity that is taxed

·   Inflation: a rise in general price levels of an economy

·   Negative government: government governs best by staying out of people’s lives (maximizes individual freedom)

·   Positive Government: government intervention is necessary to enhance personal liberty and security when individuals experience economic and social forces beyond their control

·   Social insurance: monthly benefits given according to eligibility (only given to those who paid special payroll taxes during working years).

·   Unilateralism: a national policy of acting without consulting others (acting alone). Supported by Americans after WWI.

·   Social capital: the sum of the face-to-face civic interactions among citizens in a society.

·   Externalities: The side effects of an activity. Example: pollution from a factory.

·   Deficit: the amount by which annual spending exceeds revenue

·   Tax burden: The total level at which Americans are taxed.

·   Entitlement programs: individual-benefit programs that require government to pay a designated benefit to anyone who meets the criteria

·   Isolationist: avoiding participation in foreign affairs (to a degree) (Washington’s farewell address: avoid entangling European alliances).

·   Multilateralism: a foreign policy in which the US works with other countries to accomplish its foreign policy goals.

·   Suffrage: the right to vote

·   Poll tax: a tax citizens were required to pay each year between Nov. and Jan. to be eligible to vote the following Nov.

·   Deregulation: the overturn of excessive government regulations for the purpose of improving economic efficiency

·   Supply-side economics: a form of fiscal policy that emphasizes “supply” (production). Example: tax cut for businesses

·   Debt: the state of owing money

·   Tax preferences: type of income, normally tax free that may trigger the alternate minimum for tax payers

·   Fiscal policy: a tool of economic management by which government can attempt to maintain a stable economy through its taxing and spending policies

·   Monetary policy: a tool of economic management based on manipulation of the amount of money in circulation

·   In-kind benefit: a government benefit that is a cash equivalent, such as food stamps or rent vouchers. This form of benefit ensures that recipients will use public assistance in a specified way.

·   Means test: the requirement that the applicants for public assistance must demonstrate they are poor in order to be eligible for assistance.

·   Poverty line: defined by the government as the annual cost of a thrifty food budget for an urban family of four, multiplied by three to allow also for the cost of housing, clothes, and other expenses. Families below poverty line are eligible for certain forms of public assistance.

·   Public assistance: refers to social welfare programs funded through general tax revenues and available only to the financially needy. Eligibility is established by the mean test.

·   Internationalist: the view that the country should deliberately avoid a large role in world affairs and instead concentrate on domestic concerns

·   Preemptive war: the idea, espoused by Pres. George W. Bush, that the U.S. could attack a potentially threatening nation even if the threat had not yet reached a serious and immediate level.

·   Economic stability: A situation in which there is economic growth, rising national income, high unemployment, and steadiness in the general level of prices.

·   Income inequality: refers to the extent to which income is distributed in an uneven manner among a population. “gap” between rich and everyone else.

Questions:

1. The 15^th amendment allowed African males to vote. However, many black males still couldn’t vote in the south until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which reestablished federal oversight of southern elections because of jim crow laws (poll taxes and literacy tests).

2. The 19^th amendment granted women the right to vote (1920).

3. Wyoming was the first state to let women vote!

4. Voter turnout is much lower in the U.S then it is in other democracies.  This is because:

a.      Voter Registration: voter ID laws, registration is not automatic.

b.      Compulsory Voting: some countries make you pay if you don’t vote.

c.      Barriers to Voting:

d.      Mobilization: election day on Tuesday, weaker mobilization efforts from parties.

5. Decline in Voter Turnout because:

a.      Declining personal benefits: (my vote won’t make a difference)

b.      Declining mobilization (Shift from grass-roots mobilization to image-mobilization tv focused campaign style in the 70s and 80s.)

c.      Declining Social connections: (compositional effect, social connectedness)

6. Argument for low voter turnout being a problem:

a.      Low turnout produces phony politics (doesn’t address real issues of concern)

b.      Voters aren’t represented.

c.      Low turnout discourages individual development.

7. Argument for low voter turnout NOT being a problem:

a.      Conservative argument: high turnout means that there is strife and conflict!

b.      Elitist argument: non-voters are less educated!

c.      Cynical argument: elections are charades.

8. Who is most likely to vote: black/white, educated, rich, old.

9. Least likely to vote: minorities/uneducated/poor/young

10. Registering to vote requires action by individuals in the US. It is not automatic.

11. Most elections for federal government take place on TUESDAY!

12. Voter turnout in primaries and caucuses is way lower than the general elections in the US.

13. The two roles of government in the economy include:

a.      Foster efficiency (force payment of indirect costs, competition)

b.      Foster equity

14. Social groups with higher rates of poverty:

a.      Children, female-headed households, Hispanics, Blacks

15. What is:

a.      Social Security: social insurance program (only goes to individuals who have paid special payroll taxes) directly aimed at the retired and the elderly.

b.      Medicare: social insurance for medical assistance to retirees and is funded through payroll taxes.

c.      Effect of baby boom generation on taxes: the baby-boom generation is living longer than other generations so this poses a threat to the long-term viability of social security programs. There will be fewer workers to retirees, so the inflow of payroll taxes from workers will be less than the outflow of social security benefits to retirees.

16.  Social security has a high electoral importance because it is a benefit for senior citizens and senior citizens are the most likely to vote.

17. Why the US has one of the most inefficient welfare systems in the world:

a.      There are lots of welfare systems and sometimes they overlap

b.      A large bureaucracy is needed to monitor eligibility, and this takes funding too.

18. Programs for poor families with children are poorly funded and restrictively designed because:

a.      They are less supported. People tend to support social security programs more than social welfare programs. Some people believe they are just giving out free handouts.

b.      They are restrictively designed so that people only receive what they need—only the poor can get social welfare.

19. Arguments for and against increased minimum wage:

a.      FOR: People working full time should earn enough to pay for house, food and other necessities. It will lift people out of poverty. Reduce effective government subsidy to minimum wage-paying businesses.

b.      Against: the minimum wage is excessive government interference in the marketplace.

                                                              i.      Increasing minimum wage will cause a loss of jobs and increase the price of goods.

20. Which area of government has the greatest control over education policy in the US?

a.      State legislatures and local school boards.

21. School choice is having an option as to where your child goes to school. Some argue it will improve schools because it will force school administrators and teachers to do a better job, or face a loss in students.

22. Politicians control fiscal policy completely, but they have NO influence over monetary policy.

23. The Federal Reserve is the country’s central bank. It executes monetary policy by manipulating the supply of funds that member banks can lend. The chair of the federal reserve board is the head of the federal reserve. They are appointed by the president. Current Chair: Janet Yellin (1^st woman)

24. How do the views of those who argue for laissez-faire economics differ from those who argue for an Interventionist state in the economy?

a.      Laissez-faire economics  It is a hands-off governmental policy that is based on the belief that governmental involvement in the economy is wrong. Hayek – Austrian school

b.      Interventionist State: Alternative to the laissez-faire state, the government takes an active role in guiding and managing the private economy.  Keynesian economics

25. How does economic regulation compare to social regulation?

a.      Economic regulation: Governmental regulation of business practices, industry rates, routes, or areas serviced by particular industries.

b.      Social regulation: Governmental regulation of the quality and safety of products as well as the conditions under which goods and services are produced.

26. From what source does the federal government receive the largest share of its tax revenue? Individual income taxes

27. What accounts for the largest share of spending by the federal government?

a.      Military

28. What is entitlement spending?

a.      A subset of mandatory spending. (example: social security)

29. What products are most commonly associated with sin taxes?

a.      Sin taxes: when special tax treatment is unfavorable

A tax intended to discourage unwanted behavior

Cigarettes and alcohol

30. How does the U.S. tax burden compare to that of other developed countries?

a.      The total level at which Americans are taxed. Tax burden in U.S. tends to be lower than other developed countries

–        Among the lowest of the 13 major industrialized countries

31. What is a regressive tax? What is an example of a regressive tax?

a.      A tax structured so that low-income people pay a higher rate.

• E.g.: payroll or social security tax

32. What is a progressive tax? What is an example of a progressive tax?

a.      A tax structured so that higher-income people pay a larger proportion of their income in taxes than do lower-income people. • E.g.: income tax

33. What is a flat tax?

a.      A tax that’s neither progressive nor regressive; Everyone pays at the same rate.           

34. What is the process by which the federal budget is created?

a.      A budget proposal is initially drafted by the president using information from the office of management and budget. It is then submitted to congress which conducts hearings and develops a budget itself that is ultimately voted on.

35. What role does the Office of Management and Budget play in the federal budget process?

a.      Office of Management and Budget was created to assist the president in this process

36. How does U.S. government debt compare to other developed countries?

a.      U.S debt is smaller than other developed countries

37. What is isolationism? How has it impacted American foreign policy? Why did the framers encourage it?

a.      A national policy of avoiding participation in foreign affairs (to a degree) Washington’s Farewell Address – avoid entangling European alliances. It has impacted American policy greatly. Founders desired a stronger national government that would keep the U.S. out of European affairs and vice versa.

b.       Foreign policy power given to the national government. Divided this power between the president and Congress. “Two presidents”

38. How is power for the conduct of foreign policy divided in American government?

a.      Divided this power between the president and Congress

39. How did the Framers envision this division?

a.      It would be like having “Two presidents”

40. What foreign policy powers does the president have? What is the War Powers Resolution?

a.      The president has the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors and War Powers Act was passed by Congress in 1973; the president is limited in the deployment of troops overseas to a sixty-day period in peacetime (which can be extended for an extra thirty days to permit withdrawal) unless Congress explicitly gives its approval for a longer period

41. What did President Washington warn against in his farewell address?

a.      avoiding participation in foreign affairs (to a degree) – avoid entangling European alliances

42. What is ISIS?

a.      Islamic State in Iraq and Syria. 30,000 to 50,000 fighters in Syria & Iraq

b.      Estimated to have $2 Billion in funding

c.      Sunni-sect of Islam

d.      Developed from al-Qaeda in Iraq

e.      Disowned by al-Qaeda due to its tactics

f.        Led by Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi

g.      Has morphed beyond a terrorist group (militia)

h.     ISIS threat to U.S. regional allies: Kurds, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Gulf states

43. How does it fund its activities?

a.      Oil production & smuggling. Kidnappings. Theft. Extortion

44. What is the goal of ISIS?

a.      ISIS seeks the establishment of the Caliphate

b.      ISIS seeks to eliminate modern states – all states are illegitimate

c.      After taking Mosul in June, ISIS bulldozed the border between the two states

45. In what ways has the U.S. sought to deal with ISIS?

a.      Reaching out to villages by gun and fighting support, but we are not fighting ISIS, we are trying to let them deal with it first

46. Who are ISIS’s enemies?

a.      Literally everyone in the Middle East

47. What impact does ISIS have upon the Middle East?

a.      Yazidi civilians remain trapped on Mt. Sinjar by ISIS forces

b.      U.S. airstrikes

c.      Peshmerga advances

d.      U.S. Special Operations

e.      ISIS has advanced rapidly and threatens Erbil, the largest city in Iraqi Kurdistan

f.        Iraqi political chaos

g.      Trying to unite all Muslims

Exam 2 Review!

·         Interest Group: a collection of like-minded individuals or groups that pool resources in an effort to affect government policy.

·         Selective incentives: benefits you only get by participating in interest groups

·         Safe seat: one in which the political party currently holding the seat is very likely to continue to hold that seat during an election.

·         Open seat: Open seats are congressional seats that do not have an incumbent running for reelection.

·         Direct primary: elections where voters go to the polls.

·         Caucus: small community meetings that have discussions before choosing a candidate

·         Single Member districts: a country is divided up into political districts from which we choose elected officials (one member each) to hold office. (ex: house of reps and the senate)

·         Closed primary: participation in voting for a party’s candidate is limited to voters who belong to that party.

·         Open primary: Independents and other voters from different parties are allowed to “cross over” and vote in other party’s primaries.

·         General election: labor day to election day, the goal is to win a majority of electoral college votes by winning popular vote state by state. The nominees from each party run against each other.

·         Plurality system: whoever wins the most votes wins the election

·         Proportional representation system: seats in legislature are allocated according to a party’s share of the popular vote. Seen often in European systems.

·         Political Party: organizations created for the purpose of winning elections and governing once in office

·         Realignment: rise of a new political coalition to power for a period of decades.

·         Grassroots Lobbying: a form of pressure-group activity that attempts to involve individuals who contact their representatives directly in an effort to influence policy… persuading ordinary voters to act as the group’s activists.

·         Winner-take-all: A district in which whichever candidate gets the most votes, wins the seat in congress. This is how senators and representatives are chosen.

·         Gerrymandering: the process by which the party in power draws election district boundaries in a way that enhances the reelection for its candidate

·         Soft money: a contribution to a political party that is not accounted as going to a particular candidate, thus avoiding various legal limitations.

·         Hard money: money given to candidate that can be spent as she or he choses

·         Apportionment: the determination of the proportional number of members each US state sends to the House of Representatives, based on population figures.

·         Free-rider problem: benefits from a group that are offered to members AND nonmembers. The incentive to join the group and to promote its cause is reduced because nonmembers (free riders) receive benefits without having to pay any of the groups costs

·         Retrospective voting: voters evaluating candidates based on their past performance and decide whether or not to support them

·         Prospective voting: voters evaluating candidates’ positions on important issues and vote for the best candidate that represents their views

·         Invisible primary: critical period before the first presidential primaries when candidates compete for public support, media attention, and financial contributions

·         Economic groups: interest groups that are organized primarily for economic reasons but engage in political activity in order to seek favorable policies from government

·         Citizens’ groups: group drawn together to promote a cause in which they believe but does not provide them significant individual economic benefits

·         Inside lobbying: direct communication between organized interest and policy makers which is based on the assumed value of close (inside) contacts with policymakers

·         Outside lobbying: the use of public pressure as a means of influencing officals

·         Iron triangle:A small informal but stable group of well positioned legislators, executives, and lobbyist who seek to promote policies beneficial to a particular interest

·         Issue network: open network of public officials and lobbyist who come together in response to a proposed policy in an area of interest to each of them. Unlike iron triangle, an issue network disbands after the issue is resolved

·         Political action committee (PAC): collect money for campaign contributions and other activity. By law, funds must be raised through voluntary contributions

1.      Selective incentives for people who join interest groups include:

§         Material benefit (tangible reward)

§         Solidary benefit (interaction and bonding among members)

§         Expressive benefit (be committed to greater cause/opportunity to express)

2.      What is the primary benefit that people receive from joining economic groups?

§         People tend to receive economic benefits from joining economic groups. If I join a group that supports businesses, I’m likely to benefit economically if it helps my business.

3.      What does the group AARP represent?

§         Retired people

4.      In what ways do interest groups seek to impact the political process?

§         They represent specific public interests, take part in education (agenda building and provision of program alternatives), and program monitoring.

5.      What are the primary criticisms of the effects of interest groups on our politics?

§         They represent narrow interests. Their influence could mean that our political system only responds to these narrow interests.

6.      What’s meant by the “revolving door” between congress and lobbyists?

§         The revolving door is the idea that members of congress and their staffs often move into lobbying and then lobby other members of congress. This creates a back and forth relationship between congress and lobbyists.

7.      How are presidential candidates nominated?

§         Presidential candidates are nominated through the primaries and caucuses of their political parties and then officially chosen during their party conventions.

8.      How are vice presidential candidates nominated? How has this changed over time?

§         They are selected by each party’s nominating convention, following the selection of the party’s presidential candidates.

§         Conventions have changed from events where real news was made in the selection of candidates to large advertising events for political parties????

9.      Why have primaries become increasingly used to choose presidential candidates?

§         They better connect voters to the choice of political candidates. They are more democratic/representative.

10. How does the electoral college choose the president of the US? Can you win the popular vote and still not be elected president?

§         Electors to the electoral college are chosen during the presidential election in November. These electors then meet and vote for the president in December. It IS possible to win the popular vote but lose the electoral vote. This happened to Al Gore.

11. Why was the electoral college created?

§         To limit the power of the masses and to reflect the importance of states.

12. Where does the first presidential primary take place during each presidential election?

§         The New Hampshire Primary

13. Where does the first presidential caucus take place during each presidential election?

§         The Iowa Caucus

14. How do caucuses and direct primaries differ from one another?

§         Primaries have been used more and more over the years to choose delegates. A caucus is more locally-based. A primary is state-wide and uses a ballot. Primaries are more democratic while caucuses are more informed and interactive.

15. How has the role of national party conventions changed in choosing presidential nominees?

§         Conventions have changed from events where real news was made in the selection of candidates to large advertising events for political parties

16. What are party platforms? What do platforms do for political parties?

§         Platforms are the proposals of what the political parties want to achieve when they’re in government. They allow the political parties to define what their image looks like and shape how people see them.

17. How are members of the House of Representatives chosen?

§         Chosen every second year by the people…single member districts

18. How are members of the senate chosen? How has this changed over time?

§         Two senators from each state, elected by the people of that state, for six years.

§         Senators used to be chosen by state legislators rather than by popular vote!

19. What explanation has been offered regarding why the US only has two major political parties?

§         Sociological explanation: the number of socio-economic divisions in society will influence the number of parties that they have. The more divisions = the more parties.

§         Institution explanation: we have single member districts with a plurality system (first past the post?)

20. What is Duverger’s Law?

§         In countries with single member, winner take all (or plurality) elections, there will tend to only be 2 political parties.

21. What political party currently dominates Texas politics?

§         Republican

22. What party historically dominated Texas politics before the 1980s?

§         Democrats

23. What purpose do political parties serve in our political system?

§         Political linkage, unification of a fragmented government, a voice for the opposition.

24. What is meant by the responsible party model?

§         When political parties promise to implement particular policies when they control the government and then actively implement those policies when they do control government.

25. How did political parties develop?

§         Over time people recognized that they shared common ideologies and sought to get candidates elected to office.

26. What supreme court case allowed the creation of super PACs?

§         Citizens united vs. federal election commission

27. How do super PACs differ from PACs?

§         A PAC is a political action committee. This is a group that raises and spends money on behalf of a candidate or an interest but is separate from the campaign. Super PACs differ from PACs because they can accept unlimited donations.

28. Why is a census required by the constitution?

§         In order to apportion the seats in congress so that they reflect the populations of states

29. How does the census impact the division of seats in the House and Senate?

§         A census is required so that reapportionment can be done. States gaining population can gain seats, states losing population can lose seats.

§         Is Senate affected since each state gets 2??

30. How do members of the House of Reps an the Senate compare and contrast?

§         The House: the people’s house, 2 year terms, smaller requirements, 435 seats

§         Senate: representative of sovereign states, 6 year terms, 100 seats

31. How do political parties help voters choose candidates?

§         They help provide a brand label for political candidates so that people can vote even if they don’t have a lot of information about the candidates.

32. What resources do members of congress use to get reelected?

§         They use their ability to provide constituent service

§         The Franking Privilege (free mail)

§         Ability to bring resources home to their districts to get re-elected.

 INTEREST GROUPS

v     Who developed the idea of the collective action problem? Mancur Olsen

v     Candace Lightner is an example of? A political entrepreneur

v     If there is a difference of opinion b/w an industry (big five auto) and consumers, which side will form an interest group? Auto Manufacturers  

v     How do interest groups overcome the free-loader problem? Selective benefits

v     Who’s ALEC? The AMERICAN LEGISLATIVE EXCHANGE COUNCIL

v     What is model legislation? Written by a group for use in multiple jurisdictions

v     Who belongs to ALEC? Corporations and legislators from various states

v     Amicus Curiae means? Friend of the court

v     Why do interest groups file amicus briefs? Because they may be very effective.

v     If lots of individuals and groups file amicus briefs saying the court shouldn’t take a case, how is the court likely to respond? It will take the case, because their involvement signals the case’s importance.

v     In addition to amicus briefs, interest groups can affect the outcome of litigation by bringing suit and being a party.

POLITICAL PARTIES

v     What’s a political party? An organization that runs candidates for office under a common banner in order to control governmental institutions.

v     Who were the first political parties in congress? The federalists and the democratic-republican

v     What was the first mass-based party called? The Albany Residency

v     Why were party machines so effective? They rewarded loyalty with patronage and other services.

v     What is patronage? Providing a government job to someone in exchange for their support.

v     What is the name of the document expressing the beliefs and policy agenda of a party? Platform

v     What’s the name of a ballot issued by the gov’t that includes all the names of the candidates that are running? Australian Ballot

v     What happens in a non-binding primary? Delegates can vote for whoever they want

v     Which service do modern part organizations routinely provide to candidates? Coordinating primaries

v     Which placed limitations on the amount of money a party could donate to election campaigns? The Federal Election Campaign Acts of 1971 and 1974

v     What does it mean for the US to have a two party system? Only two parties realistically compete for office.

v     Which is a barrier to third party support in the US? Single member districts

v     Which independent candidate received 18% of the vote in 1992? Ross Perot

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

v     Why is voter participation in elections at all levels of government important? It promotes the stability of our democracy, it’s an opportunity to vote one’s preference, and it’s a measure of the accountability of elected representatives.

v     Voter participation rates are lowest in local elections

v     Highest rate of participation in elections? Elderly Voters

v     Which of the following statements represents the views of those who support voter identification law? Showing a valid form of id to vote increases public trust in election outcomes.

v     Which group is most affected by voter identification laws? Low income, young, minority voters.

ELECTIONS AND CAMPAIGNS

v     Which of the following is the event from which the national party nominees for president are chosen? A convention

v     Is Florida better off? No, early primary elections only matter if they are earlier relative to other states.

v     The national parties can penalize state parties for ignoring national party rules regarding timing of primaries by reducing he number of convention delegates the state receives

v     If a candidate for president is receiving public funding during the primary and caucus season, the candidate will lose federal funding in which of these scenarios? He receives less than 10% of the vote in two consecutive primaries.

v     What impact does winning early primary elections have on candidates? It builds momentum and excitement among candidate’s followers.

v     Individuals and groups have found ways to inject more money into political activity thanks to decisions of the supreme court

v     Which of the following is true about positive campaign ads? They can help candidates solidify their own voting base by making them seem approachable and upstanding.

v     What was the result of Elizabeth Dole’s negative ad about Kay Hagan? It promoted a backlash against Dole by people who thought she’d gone too far.